Sorin NEMETI (Babeș-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca)
RELIGIOUS STRATEGIES IN AN AGE OF ANXIETY. VOTIVE DEDICATIONS FROM ROMAN DACIA FROM THE TIME OF BARRACK EMPERORS
Keywords: crisis, religion, votive, imperial paganism, soldiers.
Abstract: The text examines religious practices in Roman Dacia during the 3rd century CE, a period marked by political instability and the rise of the so-called “Barrack Emperors.” While earlier historians viewed this crisis mainly as political, scholars like Mario Mazza argue that it stemmed from deeper socio-economic changes, such as the decline of urban elites, inflation, and pressures on imperial administration and military defense. These changes influenced religious behavior across the Empire. During this time, pagan religion underwent significant transformation. Traditional polytheism gave way to forms of worship emphasizing a supreme god and more personal relationships with the divine – what Paul Veyne calls the “second paganism.” In this system, gods were seen less as equal partners in ritual exchange and more like powerful rulers who issued commands through dreams and oracles. At the same time, the imperial cult shifted to focus on the living emperor as the primary symbol of unity and loyalty, especially within the army. In Dacia, where evidence largely comes from military and urban inscriptions, this religio castrensis (the “religion of the camp”) is clearly visible. Honorary and votive frequently refer to the divine majesty of the emperor, the Capitoline Triad, and military gods such as Jupiter, Mars, and Hercules. The Severan dynasty and certain soldier-emperors, especially Philippus Arabs and Gordian III, were particularly honored. Additionally, Eastern deities popular among soldiers – such as Jupiter Dolichenus, Mithras, and Azizos –, had dedicated temples and inscriptions in the province, reflecting personal and protective religious strategies during a time of insecurity. Local cults and healing deities also appeared, though less frequently. Some inscriptions reveal elements of hierarchical or “monarchic” paganism, where different gods were seen as manifestations or servants of a supreme divine power. This suggests that even before Christianity became dominant, paganism was already restructuring itself in response to social and spiritual anxieties. In conclusion, the votive inscriptions of Dacia illustrate how religion served as a tool for reinforcing military loyalty, imperial ideology, and personal protection during a period of widespread uncertainty. While the evidence is limited, it aligns with broader patterns of religious transformation seen across the Roman Empire in the third century.